Trypsin inhibitors are an important class of protein constituents found in numerous plants and plant organs, depending on the species and developmental stage. These protease inhibitors (also known as serine protease inhibitors, or serpins), bind to serine proteases trypsin or chymotrypsin, and result in deleterious effects on digestive processes of animals.
Article Quarter: FY24 Q4
Impact of soybean processing expansion on product quality, quantity and supply chain for animal nutrition
The United States is in the midst of the most dramatic expansion of soybean processing capacity in history. Reasons are: 1. Significant processing margins allowing excellent returns to investment, 2. an ever expanding need to provide the growing world with food, fuel and feed like no other commodity can, and finally, 3. the recent mandates, tax credits and subsidies for Renewable Diesel and Sustainable Aviation Fuel.
The most recent and impactful impetus for the expansion was precipitated by the California Renewable Diesel mandates, as well as Federal EPA guidance and tax credit schemes that require huge amounts of biofuels to reduce petroleum use. A 20% increase in domestic crush is underway with several significant implications for soybean meal users worldwide. Soybean oil demand for renewable diesel will be subsidizing the price of soybean meal as an additional 10 million metric tonnes of soybean meal will have to disappear, on top of the current production of 54 million metric tonnes. So, what is likely to happen:
- Soybean meal price will come down relative to other proteins.
- Soybean meal availability will increase as new capacity comes on line.
- Soybean meal quality will improve due to new plants with new equipment.
- Exports of soybean meal will have to increase, as well as domestic consumption.
The growth in Soybean Processing will precipitate higher quality and more consistent soybean meal as new plants, with new equipment will need to buy their way into existing markets.
Global challenges in poultry nutrition
Poultry producers and integrators are faced with a myriad of immediate and long-term challenges, both can impact production goals and ultimately, profitability. Immediate challenges in poultry nutrition continue to represent better understanding ingredient quality and quantity of nutrients. Although ingredient availability varies considerably globally, adaptation of robust ingredient assay techniques resulting in realized formulation changes that better predict bird performance can be obtained. For example, collaboration on analyses of soybean meal amino acid content between soybean processing plants and broiler nutritionists and mill managers would not only increase the value of soybean meal, but also allow for predictive and precision formulation. Long-term challenges in broiler nutrition include knowledge gaps concerned with modern broiler needs “biological requirements” for some less-studied amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. Increased knowledge of nutrient release from multiple exogenous enzymes will continue to improve precision and create diet formulation flexibility. Indeed, physiological and molecular research that aids in elucidation of nutritional responses will prove beneficial when nutrient increases for stress or health are warranted. Regarding calories, methods to calculate and predict energy needs are still debated. Further, an assessment of precise mineral and vitamin source/replacement source levels are needed.
Effect of partial replacement of meat with hydrated soy proteins (4 isolates, 1 concentrate) on texture, NMR T2 time, and microstructure of chicken meat batter with different moisture contents
Hybrid meat, a blend of plant and animal proteins, aims to mitigate the rising sustainability concerns associated with traditional processed meat products. Soy proteins have been widely used for a long time, at low concentrations, to improve the functionality of processed meat products. However, limited information exists regarding its use at elevated levels. This study assessed how different soy protein powders, at 0 (control), 33, 66, and 100%, impact the water holding and textural properties of lean chicken breast meat systems with 0, 40, and 80% added water. Soy protein isolates (SPI-A, B, C, and D) and soy protein concentrate (SPC) were hydrated to match the lean meat protein concentration. Batters were cooked in a water bath to 72 °C. Cooking loss and texture profile analysis (50% double compression) were measured. T2 relaxation time was assessed using a 20-MHz NMR spectrometer. Light micrographs of cooked batters were taken. A three-factor factorial design with three independent replications was employed. In the 0% added water system, the SPI-D (33% and 66%) caused subtle (but not significant) cooking losses, while others did not. Regarding hardness, the SPI-D and SPC showed the largest significant decrease and increase, respectively, as inclusion rose from 33% to 66%. The hardness of 66% SPI-A was similar to the control. In the 40% added water system, at 66% soy, the SPI-A and SPC reduced cooking loss, but SPI-D increased it. The hardness of soy protein treatments followed a similar trend to the 0% water system, with the exception that SPC’s hardness values decreased as inclusion increased. Yet, the SPC was still harder than the control. In the 80% water system, SPI-D had similar cooking loss to control, while other soy proteins reduced it as inclusion rose. At 66% soy, the SPI-A, B, C, and SPC had comparable hardness to the control, while the SPI-D disrupted meat gel. At 100%, all soy proteins failed to form a self- supporting gel. Micrographs and NMR T2 profiles supported the cooking loss and hardness measurements.
Assessing productive energy for extruded full-fat soybean meals obtained from six different soybean sources in the U.S
Full-fat Soybean Meal (FFSBM) serves as a dual source of quality protein and energy in poultry diets. The present study determined the main characteristics, nutrient digestibility, and performance contributions of six sources of FFSBM. The soybeans were selected from six different states. A 42-day performance study consisted of feeding 1800 fast-growing male Cobb-500 broilers in 90-floor pens with corn-soybean meal basal for starter, grower, Finisher I, and Finisher II with 4, 8, or 12% for each test FFSBM without implementing control group. The data were analyzed as a completely randomized design. Each treatment was replicated five times in each dietary phase. Broiler performances were subjected to a one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD to compare separate treatment means. The AMEn, Classic NE, and Ark NE (PE) were determined for each FFSBM. The standard ileal digestibility (SID) of nutrients: protein, amino acids, starch, lipids, and sucrose of the six sources of extruded FFSBM was also determined. The mean values for PE, classic NE, and AMEn of the six FFSBM were 3705, 2759, and 3527 kcal/kg, respectively. The FFSBM provided additional energy as Ark NE (PE) compared to AMEn and classic NE. The FFSBM source D provided the best weight gain and FCR (1.34) ranked first in BCAA (5.95%) and digestible TSAA (0.94%) respectively. The FFSBM source E provided the second-best performance and contained digestible Protein, and TSAA (33.96, and 0.89) % respectively, and ranked second among the different FFSBM sources.
Naked oats and soybean hulls as alternative ingredients for broilers: Impact on growth performance and energy metabolism indicators
Potential use of alternative and local ingredients such as naked oats (NO) and soybean hull (SH) in poultry industry are based on valuable nutritional and agronomic characteristics. This study was intended to evaluate the suitability of naked oats and soybean hulls on growth performances of chickens. A total of three thousand five hundred-twenty-eight days old ROSS 308 broilers were randomly placed in 72 pens (n=49/pens) and assigned to 3 treatments: 1) Control (commercial diet), 2) NO 15% during starter (1-10 d) and growth (10-21 d) phases, and 3) SH 4% throughout the feeding programme. The diets were formulated to be iso protein and iso energy. Animals and feed were weighed at d10, 21 and 34 to assess body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed conversion (FCR). One broiler per cage was euthanized (d17) to collect tissues and blood samples for the determination of glucose, ketone bodies and lactate. Bone mineralisation was assessed on day 34 by scanning one broiler carcass using dual X-ray absorptiometry. The data were subjected to one- way ANOVA analyzed, and Tukey’s test determined the differences between means. Feeding broilers with NO and SH led to significant increases in BW during both the grower (4.35 and 3.36%; P < 0.001) and finisher phases (1.31 and 2.03%; P < 0.001). Compared to the control diet, animals fed NO and SH exhibited increased ADG during the grower phase (5.4 and 3.38%; P < 0.001) and over the entire study period (0-34 d; 1.62 and 1.36%; P < 0.01). Supplementation of NO and SH increased the ADFI of chickens during the starter phase (2.38 and 2.39%; P < 0.002), finisher phase (0.55 and 1.84%; P < 0.001), as well as the cumulative period (ADFI 0-34 days; 0.53 and 1.67%; P < 0.005). Concerning FCR, NO induced a decrease during the starter and grower phases compared to both the control and the SH diet (P < 0.001). Similar effects of NO on FCR reduction were also observed in the cumulative FCR (1.39 vs 1.41; P = 0.001). At d 17, blood ketone bodies (0.59 vs 0.73 mmol/L) and glucose (14.8 vs 16.4 mmol/L) were reduced by SH in comparison with NO (P < 0.04), whereas lactate (9.23 vs 6.70 mmol/L; P = 0.02) was greater when animals received control diet. On day 34, body fat content was reduced (12.8 vs 14.6%; P < 0.02) with the SH diet compared with the Control.
Evaluation of trypsin inhibitor contents in different types of soybean meal from various world areas analyzed by near-infrared spectroscopy technology
Soybean meal (SBM) is the most important source of dietary protein in many world areas, providing amino acids for poultry and swine. Trypsin inhibitor (TI) is one of the most relevant anti-nutritional factors in SBM. Knowledge of SBM TI contents is critical to maintain optimal performance and health of poultry and swine. To gain knowledge of TI contents in SBM, 434 SBM samples from 12 customers located in different world areas were analyzed for TI by near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy technology from Jan. 2023 to Jan. 2024. Wet chemistry TI values analyzed by the AOCS Official Method Ba 12a-2020 was used to establish NIR prediction equations. For 9 customers, their NIR instruments, Bruker or FOSS, were calibrated by Novus and they scanned SBM samples (n=315) and sent spectrum to Novus, and Novus analyzed their spectrum for TI content with calibrations specific to each customer. For 3 customers, they shipped their SBM physical samples (n=119) to Novus for analysis of TI by NIR. Among the 434 samples, 343 are solvent extract SBM, 59 are expeller SBM, and 32 are full-fat SBM. Due to unequal sample size and variance, data were subject to Welch ANOVA to evaluate TI content as affect by SBM type, SBM type by world area, and customer; means were separated by Tukey Cramer test with a significant level of 0.05. Across world areas, full-fat SBM had higher TI than expeller SBM, and expeller SBM had higher TI than solvent extract SBM (17.7, 10.8, and 5.1 mg/g trypsin inhibited for full-fat, expeller, and solvent extract SBM respectively). Examination of SBM type by world area revealed that full-fat SBM from North America (17.4 mg/g) and Latin America (17.9 mg/g) had similar TI content, expeller SBM TI content from Latin America (16.8 mg/g) were higher than (P<0.05) those from North America (10.7 mg/g) or North Africa (9.2 mg/g), solvent extract SBM were similar for Asia (6.5 mg/g), North America (6.1 mg/g) and Latin America (5.5 mg/g), which were higher than (P<0.05) those from North Africa (3.2 mg/g). Trypsin inhibitor content of solvent extract SBM varied significantly among customers with the highest averaging 6.5 mg/mg and the lowest averaging 2.7 mg/g. Previous research has indicated that dietary TI content greater than 1 mg/g may cause potential AA digestibility and performance issues, corresponding to 20%, 10%, and 7% SBM inclusion in the diets for TI at 5, 10, and 15 mg/g respectively.
Impact of fiber source and concentration on growth performance and gastrointestinal pH of necrotic enteritis challenged broiler chickens
This study investigated the influence of various soluble and insoluble fiber sources and concentrations on growth performance and gizzard and cecal pH of broiler chickens challenged with necrotic enteritis (NE). A total of 2,160 YPM x Ross 708 male chicks were assigned to 8 experimental treatments (9 replicate pens per treatment with 30 birds per replicate) on the day of placement. Two control groups (unchallenged or NE-challenged) were fed a corn-soybean meal basal diet without additional fiber sources. Six additional NE-challenged treatments were based on inclusion of 3% oat hulls (OH); 1.5% oat hulls plus 1.5% sugar beet pulp (OH+SBP) or wheat middlings (OH+WM); 3% soy hulls (SH); 1.5% soy hulls plus 1.5% sugar beet pulp (SH+SBP) or wheat middlings (SH+WM). All fiber sources were included at the expense of corn. Dietary treatments were maintained across starter (0 to 17 d), grower (17 to 26 d), and finisher (26 to 35 d) phases, and digestible lysine and metabolizable energy values for the control diets in each phase were 1.26% and 3,050 kcal/kg, 1.18% and 3,100 kcal/kg, and 1.08% and 3,125 kcal/kg, respectively. The NE challenge model included oral gavage with a 10x dose of a live Eimeria vaccine containing E. maxima, E. tenella, and E. acervulina on d 14, and gavage with 108 cfu Clostridium perfringens on d 18. Bird weights and feed intake (FI) were recorded on d 17, 21, 26 and 35. On d 21 and 35, gizzard and cecal content pH was measured for one chicken per pen. Statistical analysis of growth performance and pH was conducted in contrast to the NE- positive control treatment. Chickens challenged with NE had reduced (P < 0.01) body weight gain (BWG) and FI from 0 to 21 d, 0 to 26 d and overall (0 to 35 d). From 0 to 17 d, chickens fed OH had higher (P < 0.05) FI, while feeding OH, SH, SH +WM all resulted in poorer (P < 0.05) FCR compared with control-fed birds. From 0 to 26 d, birds fed OH+SBP had greater (P < 0.05) FI, but increased FCR (P < 0.05) was only observed for the SH and SH+SBP-fed groups compared to control-fed chickens. On d 35, chickens receiving SH+SBP had reduced (P < 0.05) BWG and higher (P < 0.05) FCR than control-fed birds. Diets containing OH+SBP and OH+WM increased (P < 0.05) overall FI, but did not influence (P > 0.05) BWG or FCR. Dietary fiber inclusion and NE infection did not alter pH in gizzard or cecal contents, except for a lower (P < 0.05) cecal pH at day 35 in birds fed OH compared to control-fed birds.
Determination of TMEn and standardized amino acid digestibility in new lines of soybeans with high protein and high sulfur amino acids fed to chickens
Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that nitrogen-corrected true metabolizable energy (TMEn) and standardized amino acid (AA) digestibility are not different in 3 new lines of soybeans with increased crude protein (CP) and increased sulfur AA (SAA) compared with conventional soybeans fed to chickens. The 3 new cross lines of soybeans were developed by crossing a high SAA (i.e. ‘CS’) with a high CP (i.e. ‘Lee 5’) soybean lines. Six soybeans (the 2 parent CS and Lee 5 lines, the 3 cross lines, and Maverick conventional) were evaluated. The 6 soybeans were autoclaved for 25 min to reduce antinutritional factors. The Maverick conventional contained 35.5% CP (1.11% SAA) and 20.1% crude fat. The CS contained similar CP and fat levels, but greater SAA content (1.42% SAA) compared with conventional soybeans. The Lee 5 contained 44.7% CP (1.28% SAA) and 13.3% fat. Thus, as expected, the new cross lines of soybeans had greater CP and SAA content, but lower crude fat levels compared with conventional soybeans. All AA levels were increased in the 3 cross lines, with the largest increase being for Cys which increased from 0.58% in the conventional to 0.82-0.99% in the 3 cross lines. In Experiments 1 and 2, two precision-fed rooster assays were conducted to determine TMEn and standardized AA digestibility in the 6 soybeans using conventional and cecectomized roosters, respectively. For each experiment, 30 individually caged White Leghorn roosters (1 year old) were fasted for 26 h and then crop intubated with 25 g of 1 of the 6 soybeans with a total of 5 roosters per soybean sample. Excreta were then collected quantitatively for 48 h post-feeding. Excreta samples were analyzed for gross energy, nitrogen, and AA. Standardized AA digestibility values were obtained from apparent AA digestibility then corrected for endogenous AA losses. Data were analyzed as a one-way ANOVA for a completely randomized design. Differences among treatments were considered significant at P < 0.05. Results from Experiment 1 yielded TMEn values between 2.921 and 3.651 kcal/g DM with the values being greater (P < 0.05) for conventional than the Lee 5 and 3 cross soybeans. These results may be explained by the higher fat content in the conventional compared with the other soybean lines. Results from Experiment 2 showed no differences (P > 0.05) in standardized digestibility coefficients for AA among soybeans.
The effect of age and exogenous enzyme supplementation on ileal endogenous amino acid losses and standardized ileal amino acid digestibility of soybean meal produced from Kentucky-grown soybeans in 9- and 19- day-old broiler chickens
There is increasing interest in using locally sourced soybeans and soybean meal. Ileal amino acid digestibility (IAAD) of soybean meal from Kentucky-grown soybeans in broiler chickens was evaluated in 9- and 19-day-old broiler chickens. The experiment used 1,080-day-old male by-product Cobb breeder chicks in a randomized complete block design consisting of 6 treatments with 10 replicate cages of 10 (sampled on day 9) and 10 replicates of 8 (sampled on day 19) birds per cage. All birds were fed a standard corn-SBM-based broiler starter diet that met or exceeded nutrient and energy requirements of the birds. The starter diet was fed until the experimental diets (nitrogen-free diet [NFD], NFD+phytase, NFD+phytase+carbohydrase enzymes, semipurified SBM, semipurified diet+phytase, semipurified diet+phytase+carbohydrase enzymes). For birds that were sampled on day 9, the NFD diets were fed for 3 days (day 6 to 9) while birds on the semipurified diets were fed the experimental diets for 5 days (day 4 to 9). Ileal digesta was collected from all birds on day 9. Similar procedures were followed for birds that were sampled on day 19 with the NFD and semipurified diets being fed for 3 and 5 days, respectively. Data were analyzed as a 2 x2 factorial arrangement of treatments (age x diet) for ileal endogenous amino acid losses (IEAAL), apparent IAAD and standardized IAAD (SIAAD). Data from the NFD were used to determine the SIAAD from the apparent IAAD values. Basal IEAAL and nitrogen losses decreased (P < 0.05) with either phytase (Thr) or a combination of phytase and carbohydrase supplementation (Tyr and Trp) while Cys and Trp endogenous losses increased (P < 0.05) with age. Apparent IAAD was improved by phytase supplementation to the semipurified diet compared to the control diet for Asp, Thr, Ser, Glu, Gly, Pro, Cys, and total amino acid. Apparent ileal digestibility for DM and Pro increased (P < 0.05) with age. After correction for basal IEAAL, the effect of enzyme supplementation was not significant for nitrogen and any amino acid except for Cys, which increased (P < 0.05) with enzyme supplementation. Standardized IAAD values for Ser, Pro, and Cys increased (P < 0.05) with age.
